Pick from the Past

December 1919

Line of draftees entering the psychological examining building for intelligence rating

The Army Intelligence Tests

By George F. Arps
Professor of Psychology, the Ohio State University; lately Major, S. C., U. S. Army

	Major Robert M. Yerkes Lately Chief of the Division of Psychology, Medical Department, United States Army

WHEN the internecine struggle of 1914 drew this nation into the vortex the American Republic was confronted with an emergency of such proportion as appeared likely to require the services of every phase of modern science. That psychology, in many respects the most youthful of the applied sciences, was able to place at the disposal of the Government a technique whereby a fairly accurate mental measurement could be made of each raw, problematical recruit, is but a striking illustration of American resourcefulness, originality, and initiative. It is likewise an effective commentary on the relative merit of American versus German points of view in the problem of human behavior.

A workably accurate scientific classification of brain power of the manhood of the Army would not only enormously abbreviate the period of organization, but also make possible a wise expenditure of this power and thus prevent wastage of material resources as well as man power. It has been the writer's experience that commanding officers are everywhere and always eager to adopt any technique or method which will enable them to discover native resourcefulness and utilize it in positions of leadership and responsibility. It is equally important to discover those so low in the scale of intelligence as to constitute a menace in the use of firearms and to the success of any military undertaking.

In recognition of these clearly desirable ends the Medical Department of the Army, in August, 1917, accepted for trial the details of the technique, methods, and procedure prepared by the Committee on the Psychological Examination of Recruits, whereby a mental classification of all recruits could be made shortly upon arrival in the various cantonments. The trial results led the Surgeon General of the Army to recommend to the War Department the extension of intelligence examining to "all company officers, all candidates for officers' training camps, and all drafted and enlisted men."

Early in 1918, the War Department approved the recommendation of the Surgeon General and created the Division of Psychology in the Sanitary Corps of the Medical Department for the purpose of carrying into effect the psychological service.

Psychological Personnel

Upon the creation of the Division of Psychology in the Medical Department, about one hundred officers and three hundred enlisted men were mobilized at Camp Greenleaf, Georgia, in the Medical Officers' Training Camp, and there given intensive military training, instruction in the technique and methods of psychological examining, army paper work, and such other instruction required of the regular medical officer.

Group of literate draftees taking ALPHA intelligence test

The above personnel were then assigned to the various large cantonments to carry into effect the methods of psychological examining. From three to five commissioned officers and four to eight enlisted men were assigned to each of the larger training camps. In addition, from twenty to sixty privates were assigned for temporary duty as scorers, clerks, typists, and orderlies, to assist in the conduct of the examinations and to make readily available the results to the various commanding officers.

With this organization and by means of the group method, it was possible to examine, in times of pressure, as many as three thousand recruits in a single day in a given cantonment.

	Scoring ALPHA examination papers. By means of stencils it was possible to score the papers almost as rapidly as succeeding groups were examined. Commanding officers received the results within twenty-four hours after examination.

Variety of Tests Employed

ALPHA.—This is a group test and is intended for literates who can read, write, and understand English with a fair degree of ease. The general practice was to segregate recruits as they entered the examining station on the basis of the grade in school last attended-fifth grade, as a rule, for the white and eighth grade for the colored troops. Those who fell below these grades were ordered to take the illiterate (BETA) examination. With proper facilities as many as five hundred recruits could be examined in approximately one hour. The procedure was entirely objective in that the examiner and the scorers were wholly unacquainted with the men examined. The scoring was done by means of stencils and in the absence of the men examined, which procedures eliminated personal bias and prejudice.

Differences in intelligence, or degrees of mental competency, as revealed by the scores made, were indicated by seven letter ratings; each letter being the equivalent of certain numerical points. The letter grades, the numerical equivalents, and significance of each are as follows:

A. Very Superior Intelligence: 135 to 212 points. Men who graded “A,” when possessed of other necessary qualifications, were regarded as “high officer type.” From three to five per cent of the drafts were “A” grade men. B  Superior Intelligence: 105 to 134 points. Men who graded “B” frequently possessed other sterling qualities which qualified them for the commissioned officer type. In actual practice an occasional “B” grade officer outranked in efficiency an “A” grade officer, but only when other necessary qualities were pronounced in the former and relatively lacking in the latter. The “B” grade indicates high type of noncommissioned material. C+  High Average Intelligence: 75 to 104 points. This grade indicates good noncommissioned officer material, rarely material for the commissioned rank. C  Average Intelligence: 45 to 74 points. Good private type with fair noncommissioned material. C–  Low Average Intelligence: 25 to 44 points. Ordinary private material. D  Inferior Intelligence: 15 to 24 points. Men of this grade are slow, illiterate, and as a rule make only fair soldiers. D–  Very Inferior intelligence: 0 to 14 points. This grade of intelligence represents the mentally unfit, the incompetent who are recommended for either development battalions, special service organizations, or for discharge.

BETA.—Like ALPHA this is a group test but is intended for illiterates and foreigners. Knowledge of English is not essential in taking this test since the instructions are given by the examiner by means of demonstrations. This set of tests parallels ALPHA in the method of scoring, the variety of grades of intelligence classification, and in the objective character of the results. A workable correlation exists between ALPHA and BETA that an “A” grade in the former is roughly equivalent to an “A” grade in the latter.

INDIVIDUAL TESTS.—Individual tests are given to those who fail or make a very low score in BETA after having failed in ALPHA. Two forms of individual examinations are used for those who understand English, namely, the Yerkes-Bridges Point Scale and the Stanford revision of the Binet Scale. By means of the Performance Scale illiterates in English are examined. The time required to give an individual examination varies from ten minutes to an hour.

It is obvious from the above that the variety of tests covers every case and that, therefore, a complete mental classification of all recruits is made possible.

“Close-up” demonstration of BETA test.—The demonstrator is showing how to put in missing parts.

Major R. M. Yerkes, lately chief of the Division of Psychology, gives the following summary of the results of psychological examining in the various cantonments where this service was organized:

“The work of mental examining was organized finally in thirty-five army training camps. A grand total of 1,726,000 men had been given psychological examination prior to January 1, 1919. Of this number, about 41,000 were commissioned officers. More than 83,000 of the enlisted men included in the total had been given an individual examination in addition to the group examination for literates, for illiterates, or both.

“Between April 27 and November 30, 1918, 7749 (0.5 per cent) were reported for discharge by psychological examiners because of mental inferiority. The number of recommendations for assignment to labor battalions because of low grade intelligence was 9871 (0.6+ per cent). A total of 9432 men (0.6+ per cent) was recommended for assignment to development battalions in order that they might be carefully observed and given preliminary training to discover, if possible, ways of using them in the Army.

“During this same period of six months, there were reported 4744 men with mental age ratings below seven years; 7762 between seven and eight years; 14,566 between eight and nine years; 18,581 between nine and ten years. This gives a total of 45,653 (3 per cent) men under ten years' mental age. It is extremely improbable that many of these individuals were worth what it cost the Government to maintain, equip, and train them for military service.”

	Individual examination.—The manikin test, which the recruit is trying to put together, is one of the Performance tests given to those who have made a low score in the preceding group tests.

Sample Alpha Tests (for Literates)

[The ALPHA examination comprises eight tests given to recruits in groups numbering 500 as a desirable maximum. In practice the actual number probably did not exceed 200 as an average. Each such group could ordinarily be examined in somewhat less than one hour.]

The recruits, marched into the examining room, were seated, and each supplied with a pencil and examination booklet by orderlies who supervised the group during the examination and upon its completion collected the papers and pencils. As soon as the group was seated and supplied with the necessary examining material, the following general directions were given by the examiner:

“Attention! The purpose of this examination is to see how well you can remember, think, and carry out what you are told to do. The aim is to find out what you are best fitted to do in the Army.

“Now, in the Army a man often has to listen to commands and then carry them out exactly. I am going to give you some commands to see how well you can carry them out. Listen closely. Ask no questions. Do not watch any other man to see what he does.

“Look at your papers. When I call ‘Attention,’ stop instantly whatever you are doing and hold your pencil up—so. (Examiner illustrates by raising his pencil.) Don't put your pencil down to the paper until I say ‘Go.’ Listen carefully to what I say. Do just what you are told to do. Remember, wait for the word ‘Go.’”

Of the eight tests included in the ALPHA examination a limited amount of each of tests 1, 3, 4, 6, and 7 is given here.

PARTS OF TEST 1 Twelve items are included under this test of which 1, 4, 7, 11, and 12 are here reproduced (below). Under each item are given the directions used by all psychological examiners in giving the test to recruits. “Attention! ‘Attention’ always means ‘Pencils up.’ Look at the circles at 1. When I say ‘Go’ but not before, make a figure 2 in the second circle and also a cross in the third circle.—Go!”  (Allow not more than 5 seconds) “Attention! Look at 4. When I say ‘Go’ make a figure 2 in the space which is in the circle but not in the triangle or square, and also make a figure 3 in the space which is in the triangle and circle, but not in the square.—Go!”  (Allow not more than 10 seconds) “Attention! Look at 7. When I say ‘Go’ cross out the letter just after F and also draw a line under the second letter after I.—Go!” (Allow not more than 10 seconds) “Attention! Look at 11. When I say ‘Go’ draw a line through every odd number that is not in a square, and also through every odd number that is in a square with a letter.—Go!”  (Allow not more than 25 seconds) “Attention! Look at 12. If 4 is more than 2, then (when I say ‘Go’) cross out the number 3 unless 3 is more than 5, in which case draw a line under the number 4.—Go!” (Allow not more than 10 seconds) TEST 3 This is a test of common sense. Below are sixteen questions. Three answers are given to each question. You are to look at the answers carefully; then make a cross in the square before the best answer to each question, as in the sample: Why do we use stoves? Because       they look well       they keep us warm       they are black Here the second answer is the best one and is marked with a cross. Begin with No. 1 and keep on until time is called. 1. It is wiser to put some money aside and not spend it all, so that you may       prepare for old age or sickness       collect all the different kinds of money       gamble when you wish 2. Shoes are made of leather, because       it is tanned       it is tough, pliable and warm       it can be blackened 3. Why do soldiers wear wrist watches rather than pocket watches? Because       they keep better time       they are harder to break       they are handier 9. If a man who can't swim should fall into a river, he should       yell for help and try to scrambleout       dive to the bottom and crawl out       lie on his back and float After one and a half minutes the examiner called “Stop” and directed attention to test 4. TEST 4 If the two words of a pair mean the same or nearly the same, draw a line under same. If they mean the opposite or nearly the opposite, draw a line under opposite. If you cannot be sure, guess. The two samples are already marked as they should be. Forty pairs of words compose this test and one and a half minutes are devoted to it. TEST 6 Look at each row of numbers below, and on the two dotted lines write the two numbers that should come next. Twenty completion number series comprise the test and three minutes are devoted to it. TEST 7 In each of the lines [in the box on the right], the first two words are related to each other in some way. What you are to do in each line is to see what the relation is between the first two words, and underline the word in heavy type that is related in the same way to the third word. Begin with No. 1 and mark as many sets as you can before time is called. Forty relational or proportional sentences make up this test. The time limit is three minutes.

The general character and procedure of the literate (ALPHA) examination are indicated by the above tests from which certain parts of each have been deleted. The total results of the Army tests give a reliable index or measure of native ability as contrasted with the conventional measurements of acquired learning. Of paramount importance are the discovery and selection of men of very superior mental alertness, of ability to think accurately and quickly, and to analyze situations, comprehend clearly, and act decisively.

PICTURE COMPLETION TEST In this BETA test a certain part or parts are lacking in each figure and are to be supplied in a manner analogous to the demonstration which preceded. Twenty different incomplete figures comprise the test. A time limit of 3 minutes is set on the test.

Sample Beta Tests (for Illiterates and Foreigners)

In the so-called BETA tests a knowledge of the English language is not necessary. It is, therefore, possible to discover foreigners and others of high grade native ability as well as other grades of mental ability.

As in the case of ALPHA, the BETA examination comprises eight distinct tests. Each test is demonstrated on a blackboard, partly in pantomime, by the examiner with the assistance of an orderly. Parts of two of the eight tests are given here.

Geometrical construction in BETA test—Through use of cardboards, blackboard, pantomime, and demonstration, the subjects are directed to fit in the separate pieces by means of pencil lines in the heavy-faced square figure to the right in each of the ten problems. At the end of 2½ minutes the examiner calls “Stop!” and the next test is undertaken.

Value of the Psychological Service

If it costs $2500, as has been estimated, to equip, train a man for eight months, and send him overseas; if he is now found mentally incompetent and therefore returned, mustered out, insurance and pension obligation closed at an additional expense of $2500, then we find a total of $5000 needless expenditure.

It becomes a plain matter of arithmetic to compute the wastage in selecting, for example, 10,000 of such mental incompetents. Compare this enormous wastage with the cost of giving mental tests to one hundred times this many men at twenty-five cents per man. As a matter of fact, during six months of psychological examining there were 12,506 men reported with intellectual maturity ranging from less than seven years to under eight. It requires no particular levy on the imagination to determine the degree of responsibility attached to this grade of intelligence.

Add to this number 33,147 men with a mental rating of between eight and ten years and the economic importance of mental classification of recruits becomes apparent. When we consider the clogging effects of very low grade mentals in the development of army organization and the positive dangers connected with the assignment of these children with adult bodies to combatant units, the value of mental classification becomes increasingly manifest. Professional and emergency, army officers were not slow in recognizing the importance of this type of service.

The words of Major Robert Conard, M.R.O., Surgeon, 367th Infantry, A.E.F., are significant in this connection:

“The sorting process, both physically and mentally, is, as it seems to me, one of the most important things to be done. I eliminated about a thousand and am now reaping the benefit in the way of a phenomenally low ineffective rate, which I hope to maintain. The mental selection is a great thing, and cannot be given too much weight. So much time and energy have been wasted in training men who are mentally unfit, that I am sure the value of early elimination of that element must be recognized.”

Purposes of Intelligence Tests

Among the main purposes of the psychological service may be listed:

1. Segregation of the mentally deficient from those capable of doing combatant service;
2. Further segregation of those wholly incompetent for military service from those capable of service in labor battalions;
3. Assistance in the selection of candidates for
   1. Infantry School of Officers,
   2. Quartermaster Schools,
   3. Machine-gun Schools, (d) Artillery Schools,
   4. Signal Schools, and
   5. Noncommissioned Officers' Schools;
   
   
4. Assistance in determining fitness for promotion or assignment to positions of responsibility;
5. Assistance for personnel adjutants in the assignments of recruits to organizations in such a way as to secure an equitable distribution of intelligence and thus avoid loading one company of a regiment, for example, with a preponderance of relatively inferior men while overweighting another with relatively superior men;
6. Assistance in classifying men sent to battalion schools into classes of approximate ability, thus enabling each group to proceed at a rate commensurate with the ability of the group.

General Significance of the Psychological Service

The fundamental idea back of the psychological service as a whole consists essentially in the clear recognition of the elemental fact that supremacy must ultimately, if not immediately, rest with that side of a contentious world which levies insistent tribute upon its intelligent manhood. It is a generally acknowledged principle that success hangs heaviest on intelligent leadership and that places of responsibility cannot be safely entrusted to any save those endowed with nothing short of very superior or superior ability, the gifted members of society.

In recognition of this cardinal principle, in view of the extraordinary value of native resourcefulness, and, in view of the imperative necessity of utilizing the best brains of the nation in positions of leadership, the psychologists, under the able direction of Major B. M. Yerkes, conceived the idea of applying the science of psychology to the difficult task of classifying the men of the American Army into seven grades of intelligence. The top grade representing the cream of American manhood was thereby immediately made available to the regular army officer, who, let it be said to the lasting credit of a somewhat maligned professional class, was not slow to employ intelligence tests, upon being convinced of their validity and utility, in the selection of commissioned and noncommissioned officers. It is true that "cream will rise to the surface"; it is equally true that the process is slow and wasteful. The psychological "separator" not only abbreviated the process but graded the quality.

The outstanding significance of the psychological service, its most enduring contribution to national well-being consists in demonstrating the imperative necessity of placing intelligence examination on a parity with physical examination as now conducted by the medical profession. In this respect the work of the psychologists in the American Army finds no parallel or precedent

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